Clinical Uses of EEG Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive diagnostic tool that records electrical activity in the...
Selection, Collection, and Transport of Specimens for Microbiological Examination 1. Selection of Specimens The selection of specimens...
Different Types of Formula Used in Infants Infant formula is designed to provide the necessary nutrition for...
Types and Causes of Acyanotic Congenital Heart Disease Types of Acyanotic Congenital Heart Disease Acyanotic congenital heart...
Understanding the Technique of V/Q Scan A V/Q scan, or ventilation/perfusion scan, is a nuclear imaging test...
Pathogenesis of Peptic Ulcer Disease Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is characterized by the formation of open sores...
Electrolyte Composition of Different Compartments The human body is composed of various fluid compartments, primarily categorized into...
Definition of Primary and Secondary Postpartum Hemorrhage 1. Primary Postpartum Hemorrhage (PPH) Primary postpartum hemorrhage refers to...
Symptoms and Signs of Hydrocephalus in Children Hydrocephalus is a condition characterized by an abnormal accumulation of...
Understanding Blood Grouping in Blood Transfusion Blood transfusion is a critical medical procedure that involves transferring blood...
Sedative-hypnotics are medications that primarily affect the central nervous system (CNS) to induce sedation and promote sleep....
Functions of the Reticular Formation The reticular formation is a complex network of neurons located in the...
Major Physiological Mechanisms Regulating Cardiac and Vascular Functions in the Body 1. Overview of Cardiac Function Regulation...
Congenital Anomalies of the Pancreas Congenital anomalies of the pancreas are structural abnormalities that occur during fetal...
Types of Organ Reactions in Response to Drug Toxicities Drug toxicities can lead to a variety of...
Alveolar ventilation is defined as the volume of air entering and leaving the alveoli per minute, which...
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) refers to a condition during pregnancy where a fetus does not grow as...
Emergency Room Diagnosis and Interpretation of Radiologic Studies in Spinal Trauma Spinal trauma can result from various...
Coagulation disorders in pregnancy refer to conditions that increase a woman’s tendency to form blood clots during...
(a) Structure of the Heme Prosthetic Group The heme prosthetic group is a critical component of both...
Waves of ECG and Their Causes 1. P Wave The P wave represents atrial depolarization, which is...
Key Conceptual Similarities and Differences Between Autonomic Cholinergic and Adrenergic Pathways 1. Overview of Autonomic Pathways The...
Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) refers to a group of rare tumors that develop from trophoblastic cells, which...
Antepartum hemorrhage (APH) refers to genital bleeding that occurs during pregnancy after the 28th week, up until...
Introduction to Atelectasis Atelectasis is a medical condition characterized by the partial or complete collapse of the...
Synthesis and Degradation of Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) (1) Synthesis of GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a key...
Clinical Uses of Opioid Receptor Antagonists Opioid receptor antagonists are a class of drugs that bind to...
Understanding and Assigning the Glasgow Coma Score The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is a clinical tool used...
Physiological Aspects of Normal Bowel Habits Normal bowel movements are characterized by well-formed, soft, brown stools that...
Pathophysiology of Pleural Effusion Pleural effusion is characterized by the accumulation of excess fluid in the pleural...
Extracellular, Intracellular, and Intravascular Volume in a 70-kg Man In a 70-kg man, the distribution of body...
Action Potential and Its Importance in Neuronal Signalling An action potential is a rapid, temporary change in...
Acid-base disorders are primarily characterized by alterations in the concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) in the blood,...
Common Yeast and Mold Infections in Humans Fungal infections in humans can be broadly categorized into two...
Neural Mechanisms of Pain Sensation and Its Control Overview of Pain Sensation Pain sensation is a complex...
Mechanism of Pancreatic Secretion from Acinar Cells The acinar cells are specialized cells in the pancreas responsible...
Therapeutic Aims of Antidiarrheal Drugs Antidiarrheal drugs are primarily used to manage and alleviate the symptoms associated...
Overview of Glycogen Storage Diseases (GSD) Glycogen storage diseases are a group of rare inherited metabolic disorders...
An intestinal stoma is a surgically created opening in the abdomen that allows for the diversion of...
Physicochemical Theories of Anesthesia: Lipid and Protein Theory The mechanisms by which general anesthetics induce their effects...
Pathophysiology of Cough Coughing is a complex reflex action that serves as a protective mechanism for the...
Gastrointestinal (GIT) enzymes are crucial biological catalysts that facilitate the breakdown of food substances into smaller, absorbable...
Amoebiasis, also known as amebic dysentery, is an intestinal infection caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Pathophysiology Entamoeba...
Mechanism of Drug-Induced Vomiting Drug-induced vomiting, also known as medication-related nausea and vomiting (MRNV), occurs through a...
Mechanisms of Renal Clearance Renal clearance is a critical physiological process that measures the efficiency with which...
Production of Oxygen Free Radicals Intermediates Oxygen free radicals are highly reactive species that play significant roles...
Blood Coagulation Process and Stages Blood coagulation, also known as hemostasis, is a complex physiological process that...
Menopause is a natural biological process that marks the end of a woman’s reproductive years, characterized by...
Usefulness of Altering Urine pH by Drugs Altering urine pH through the use of drugs has important...
Pathologic Features of Prostatitis Acute Prostatitis Acute prostatitis is an inflammatory condition of the prostate gland that...
Factors Involved in the Initiation of Parturition The initiation of parturition, or childbirth, is a complex physiological...
Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) is a laboratory procedure used to determine the sensitivity or resistance of bacteria...
Clinical Significance and Types of Cyanosis Cyanosis is a clinical sign characterized by a bluish or purplish...
The vermiform appendix is a narrow, tube-like structure attached to the cecum, which is the beginning of...
A wound is defined as a disruption of the normal anatomical structure and function of the skin...
Bronchial asthma, commonly referred to simply as asthma, is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways characterized...
Pathophysiology of Adrenal Insufficiency Adrenal insufficiency occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce sufficient amounts of...
Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) are a group of non-invasive diagnostic procedures that measure how well the lungs...
Lung Volumes and Capacities Lung volumes and capacities are essential measurements in respiratory physiology, reflecting the amount...
Defining Features and Epidemiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a progressive...
Theory and History Behind the Growth of Bacteria In Vitro vs In Vivo Growth The growth of...
Pathophysiology and Its Relation with Pituitary Gland Pathophysiology refers to the study of the functional changes that...
Acute appendicitis is a sudden inflammation of the appendix, a small, tube-like structure attached to the large...
Immunity refers to the body’s ability to resist or defend against infections, diseases, and foreign substances. It...
Methods of DNA Transfer in Microorganisms Microorganisms, particularly bacteria, have developed several mechanisms to transfer DNA between...
Pathologic calcification refers to the abnormal deposition of calcium salts in tissues, which can occur in various...
Why We Stain Organisms in Bright Field Microscopy Staining is a critical technique in bright field microscopy...
Morbid obesity is a medical condition characterized by an excessive accumulation of body fat that significantly increases...
Urinary incontinence (UI) is defined as the involuntary loss of urine, which can significantly affect a woman’s...
The ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) ratio is a critical concept in respiratory physiology that describes the relationship between the...
Clinical Findings of Diverticular Disease Diverticular disease encompasses two primary conditions: diverticulosis and diverticulitis. 1. Diverticulosis Diverticulosis...
The Pharmacology Of Oral Contraceptive Drugs Oral contraceptives (OCs) are medications taken by mouth to prevent pregnancy....
Interpretation of Cardiac Enzymes in Heart Attack Diagnosis Cardiac enzymes are biochemical markers that are released into...
Carcinogens are substances that can lead to cancer by causing changes in cellular metabolism or damaging the...
Hypersensitivity Reaction Hypersensitivity reactions are exaggerated or inappropriate immune responses to antigens that can lead to tissue...
Analgesia refers to the relief of pain without the loss of consciousness. In obstetrics, it is primarily used...
Miscarriage, clinically referred to as spontaneous abortion, is defined as the unintentional loss of a pregnancy before...
Mechanism of Tests of Prenatal Diagnosis During 1st Trimester During the first trimester, prenatal diagnosis primarily involves...
The Ziehl-Neelsen staining technique, also known as acid-fast staining, is a differential staining method primarily used to...
Ethical omissions in medical practice refer to instances where healthcare professionals fail to uphold ethical standards, resulting...
Neoplastic Lesions of the Breast Neoplastic lesions of the breast can be classified into benign and malignant...
Anatomy of the Mammary Gland The mammary gland is a complex structure primarily composed of glandular tissue,...
Antineoplastic drugs are agents that act to prevent, inhibit, or halt the development of neoplasms (tumors). These...
Epidemiologic Triad of Disease Transmission The epidemiologic triad is a model used to understand the dynamics of...
Concept of Ethical Dilemmas in the Life of a Doctor Ethical dilemmas are complex situations that often...
Drug poisoning, often referred to as drug overdose, occurs when an individual consumes a substance in amounts...
Anemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency in the number or quality of red blood cells...
Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) occur when the pharmacological effects of one drug are altered by the presence of...
General Principles of Immunosuppression Immunosuppression refers to the reduction of the immune response, which can be achieved...
Significance of Immunodiagnosis in Disease Immunodiagnosis refers to the use of immunological techniques to diagnose diseases by...
Single-Gene Disorders with Nonclassic Inheritance Single-gene disorders are conditions caused by mutations in a single gene. These...
Basic Structure and Function of Neurons Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system, responsible for...
Differentiation between Necrosis and Apoptosis Necrosis and apoptosis are two distinct forms of cell death that occur in response to...
Behcet’s disease, also known as Behçet’s syndrome, is a chronic inflammatory disorder characterized by recurrent oral and...
Transport of Ovum from the Surface of Ovary to Ampulla of Fallopian Tube The transport of the...
Major Drugs or Groups of Drugs Associated with GI Ulceration Gastrointestinal (GI) ulceration refers to the formation...
Wheezing is a common respiratory symptom characterized by a high-pitched whistling sound during breathing, particularly during expiration....
The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a highly selective permeability barrier that separates the circulating blood from the...
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the alveoli, which are the small air...
Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow Intrinsic regulation of blood flow refers to the local, automatic adjustments made...
Endometriosis is a chronic, often painful condition in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus...
Hemostasis is the physiological process that prevents and stops bleeding, or hemorrhage. It involves a complex interplay of...
Reversible Cell Injury and Cell Death (a) Reversible Cell Injury: Reversible cell injury refers to a state...
Bronchogenic carcinoma, commonly known as lung cancer, is one of the leading causes of cancer-related morbidity and...
Normal Karyotype A normal karyotype refers to the complete set of chromosomes in an individual, organized and...
Cell junctions are specialized structures that facilitate the adhesion and communication between adjacent cells in tissues. They...
Pyrimidines are a class of nitrogenous bases that are essential components of nucleic acids. The three primary...
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacterium that colonizes the gastric epithelium of humans. It...
Arrhythmias are defined as irregularities in the rhythm or rate of the heartbeat. They can manifest as...
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless bodily fluid found in the brain and spinal cord. It...
A thyroid isotope scan, also known as a thyroid scintigraphy or thyroid scan, is a diagnostic imaging...
Acetylcholine (ACh) is a quaternary ammonium compound, classified as a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in...
Lipid-lowering agents are pharmacological compounds used primarily to reduce levels of lipids in the blood, particularly low-density...
Hemoptysis is the expectoration (coughing up) of blood or blood-stained sputum from the lower respiratory tract, specifically...
Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels, primarily...
Purines are a class of nitrogenous bases that consist of a two-ring structure made up of carbon...
Lymphomas are a diverse group of blood cancers that originate in the lymphatic system, which is part...
A blood culture is a laboratory test used to detect the presence of microorganisms, such as bacteria...
Prolonged pregnancy, also known as post-term pregnancy, is defined as a pregnancy that extends beyond 42 weeks...
Contrast media, also known as contrast agents or contrast dyes, are substances used in medical imaging to...
Secondary hypertension is high blood pressure that results from an identifiable underlying condition. Unlike primary hypertension, which...
Normal flora, also known as microbiota or commensal microorganisms, refers to the diverse community of microorganisms that...
Dehydration is a medical condition that occurs when the body loses more fluids than it takes in,...
Hepatic Portal Circulation 1. Formation of the Hepatic Portal Vein The hepatic portal vein is formed by...
Impact and Mechanisms Involved in Essential Hypertension Essential hypertension, also known as primary hypertension, is a chronic...
Lipoproteins are complex macromolecular structures that consist of lipids and proteins. They serve as transport vehicles for...
Generation of an Action Potential in the Heart The generation of an action potential in the heart...
Lymphedema is a condition characterized by the accumulation of lymphatic fluid in the interstitial tissues, leading to...
Antimetabolites are a class of drugs that inhibit the use of metabolites, which are the intermediate products...
Autoimmunity refers to a condition in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells, tissues,...
Principles of Infection Control Infection control is a critical aspect of surgical practice, aimed at preventing infections...
Hypoxia is a medical condition characterized by an inadequate supply of oxygen to the tissues of the body....
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are a heterogeneous group of hematological disorders characterized by ineffective hematopoiesis, leading to peripheral...
Predisposing factors associated with surgical site infections Surgical site infections (SSIs) are a significant concern in the...
Structural Relationship of the Penicillin Molecule with Antimicrobial Activity The penicillin molecule, a member of the β-lactam...
The Physiology of Surgical Stress Surgical stress refers to the physiological changes that occur in the body...
The complement system is a crucial component of the innate immune response, consisting of a complex network of proteins...
Aim of Pre-Operative Evaluation Pre-operative evaluation is a critical component of the surgical process, aimed at assessing...
The cell-mediated immune response is a crucial component of the adaptive immune system, primarily involving T lymphocytes...
Mendelian disorders, also known as Mendelian diseases or single-gene disorders, are genetic conditions that arise from mutations...
Apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms....
The female reproductive cycle, commonly referred to as the menstrual cycle, is a series of physiological changes...
Normal labor is defined as the physiological process through which a pregnant individual delivers a fetus and...
Lesions of the Pleura The pleura is a serous membrane that envelops the lungs and lines the...
Mechanism of Action of Protein Synthesis Inhibitors Protein synthesis inhibitors are a class of antibiotics that target...
Normal Cell Cycles and Fundamental Principles of Cancer Regarding Cycle The normal cell cycle is a series...
Immunoglobulins, commonly known as antibodies, are specialized glycoproteins produced by plasma cells (a type of white blood...
Drug Disposition The term drug disposition refers to the processes that determine the fate of a drug within...
Biotransformation of drugs refers to the chemical transformation of a drug into another chemical entity, commonly known...
Drug receptors are specialized proteins located on the surface of cells or within cells that bind to...
Gynaecological procedures are medical interventions that involve the female reproductive system, including the ovaries, vagina, vulva, fallopian...
The puerperium, also known as the postpartum period, refers to the time following childbirth during which the...
Angina pectoris, commonly referred to as angina, is a condition characterized by chest pain or discomfort that...
Cardiac failure, also known as heart failure, is a clinical syndrome characterized by the heart’s inability to...
Acidification of urine refers to the process by which the pH level of urine decreases, resulting in...
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder primarily affecting the joints, but it can also...
Oogenesis is the biological process through which female gametes, or ova (egg cells), are produced in the...
Gametogenesis is the biological process through which gametes, or sex cells, are produced in organisms. In animals, this...
Dosage forms refer to the physical form in which a medication is produced and dispensed. They are...
Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are defined as harmful or unintended responses to a medication that occur at...
Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including immune...
A bone marrow transplant (BMT) is a specialized medical procedure used to treat patients with certain cancers...
A breech vaginal delivery occurs when a baby is delivered through the birth canal in a breech...
Fetal Malposition Fetal malposition refers to the orientation of the baby in relation to the mother’s spine...
Endometrial cancer originates in the lining of the uterus, known as the endometrium. The etiology involves a...
A flap is a unit of tissue that is transferred from one site of the body (donor site)...
The Role of Single Gene in Disease Production The role of single genes in disease production is...
Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) is a type of stroke characterized by bleeding within the skull. This bleeding can...
Chemotherapy plays a crucial role in the management of cancer by using chemical agents to target and...
Arterial Blood Gases (ABGs) are a series of tests that measure the levels of oxygen (O₂) and carbon...
The Rate of ECG Tracing The rate of an ECG tracing can be determined by analyzing the...
Pharmacology of Estrogen Preparations and Their Use Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones that play a...
Mode of Action of Androgen Hormones Androgens are a group of hormones that play a crucial role...
Hydatid disease, also known as cystic echinococcosis or hydatidosis, is a parasitic infection caused by the larval...
Neoplastic conditions of the oral cavity refer to abnormal growths or tumors that can be either benign...
Anesthesia refers to the use of medications, known as anesthetics, to prevent pain during medical procedures or surgeries....
Definition of Paresis Paresis is a medical condition characterized by muscle weakness or impaired movement. Unlike paralysis, where...
Definition of Suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one’s own death. It is often the result...
A delayed union refers to a situation where a bone fracture takes longer than the usual time to heal....
Fibrinolysis is a physiological process that prevents blood clots from growing and becoming problematic. This process involves the...
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence...
Coagulants Coagulants are substances that promote blood clotting by causing coagulation, which is the process of converting...
Rh incompatibility, also known as Rh disease, arises when an Rh-negative mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal...
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to a combination of physical, emotional, and psychological symptoms that occur in the...
Dysmenorrhea is a medical term that refers to painful menstrual periods. It is a common gynecological condition...
Secondary amenorrhea is when a woman who already menstruates does not get her period for 3 months or...
Primary amenorrhea is a condition characterized by the absence of menstruation in a woman by the age...
The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that produce and secrete hormones to regulate various...
Liver function tests, also known as a liver panel, are blood tests that measure various substances produced...
Polycythemia, also known as erythrocytosis, is a medical condition characterized by an abnormal increase in the number...
Anemia in a child is a medical condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or...
Gastritis, duodenal ulcers, and gastric ulcers are all conditions that affect the gastrointestinal system. Each of these...
Dementia is a general term used to describe a decline in mental ability that is severe enough...
Hypersecretion of the pancreas refers to an excessive production and release of pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate into...
Diagnostic tests for gastrointestinal (GIT) evaluation are essential in diagnosing various conditions affecting the digestive system. These...
To ensure accurate and reliable results in a urine detailed report examination, it is essential to follow...
Osteoporosis is a medical condition characterized by a decrease in bone density and quality, leading to an...
Gestational trophoblastic diseases (GTD) are a group of rare tumors that develop from the cells that would...
Fibroids, also known as uterine fibroids or leiomyomas, are noncancerous growths that develop in the wall of...
An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants and grows outside the uterus, typically in the...
